🎯 What is Research?
Research is "a structured and scientific approach used to collect, analyze, and interpret quantitative or qualitative data to answer research questions or test hypotheses." More comprehensively, research methodology represents a systematic method to resolve research problems through data gathering using various techniques.
🧠 Origin
- 'Research' is derived from the French word 'rechercher' which means to seek again.
- It is made up of two words: Re + Search
- Re means again, repeat
- Search means to examine, to probe
- Research is an intensive study in a systematic way on a subject that aims to perform research in a transparent manner with fair, replicable results.
🔬 Scientific Inquiry Foundation
Scientific inquiry involves careful observation, asking questions, formulating hypotheses, experimental testing, and refining hypotheses based on experimental findings. This process includes creating testable hypotheses through inductive reasoning, testing these hypotheses through experiments and statistical analysis.
✨ Core Characteristics of a Good Quality Research: Methodological Rigor
- Systematic Approach: Clear, logical sequence of steps with consistent procedures
- Validity and Reliability: Results accurately reflect phenomena studied
- Reproducibility: Other researchers can replicate methodology
- Ethical Standards: Protection of human subjects and honest reporting
Definition
Purpose and Functions of Research
Concept of Research
Research, at its core, is a systematic and scientific pursuit of knowledge aimed at uncovering information about a specific topic or issue. D. Slesinger and M. Stephenson defines it in the Encyclopaedia of Social Sciences, 'it involves the manipulation of things, concepts or symbols for the purpose of generalising to extend, correct or verify knowledge.' This process is both an art and a science, demanding intellectual curiosity, precision, and adherence to established methodologies.
Purpose of Research
The primary purpose of research is to address questions through systematic and scientific procedures, ultimately seeking to discover truths yet unknown. Research objectives broadly fall into four categories:
- To gain familiarity or new insights
- To accurately portray characteristics of individuals, situations, or groups
- To determine frequency or association between phenomena
- To test hypotheses of causal relationships between variables
Functions of Research
Exploring New Facts
Pushing the boundaries of current understanding
Uncovering Relationships
Enhancing comprehension of complex systems
Creating Knowledge
Fostering innovation and new product development
Identifying Opportunities
Guiding strategic decision-making
Solving Problems
Driving development across diverse sectors
Qualities of Good Research
Systematic
Follows organized procedures
Logical
Based on sound reasoning
Empirical
Based on observation and evidence
Replicable
Can be repeated with similar results
Time Bound
Completed within defined timeframes
Transparent
Open and clear methodology
📊 Quality Indicators
Data Quality: Appropriate sampling, unbiased collection, inclusive methodology, secure storage
Analytical Rigor: Appropriate methods matched to research questions, transparent analysis, appropriate interpretation
Basic Components of Research
According to Scholar (Pardede, 2018), research involves the following basic components:
- Title/Topic: Predicts content, catches reader's interest, reveals nature of manuscript, contains keywords for search
- Author
- Abstract
- Introduction
- Literature review
- Objectives
- Research Methods/Methodology
- Results and conclusion
- References
The Research Process: A Step-by-Step Guide
Conducting effective research requires a structured approach, following a series of interconnected steps. This methodical progression ensures thoroughness, rigor, and the production of credible and reliable findings.
1Formulating the Research Problem
This initial step involves identifying a broad area of interest, narrowing it down to a specific, manageable problem, and clearly defining the research question(s). It often includes conducting preliminary background research to understand existing knowledge gaps.
2Extensive Literature Survey
A comprehensive review of existing scholarly articles, books, and other relevant sources helps to understand what has already been done, identify theoretical frameworks, and refine the research problem and objectives.
3Developing Hypotheses
Based on the literature review and research problem, testable statements (hypotheses) are formulated. These are tentative explanations that the research aims to verify or refute.
4Preparing the Research Design
This involves creating a detailed plan for the research, including the overall approach (e.g., experimental, descriptive), data collection methods, and data analysis techniques. It serves as a blueprint for the entire study.
5Determining Sample Design
For studies involving populations, this step defines the method for selecting a representative subset (sample) of individuals or entities to study. Various sampling techniques exist, such as simple random, stratified, cluster, or sequential sampling.
Significance of Research
Advances Knowledge
Enhances understanding of various phenomena
Develops New Ideas
Fosters innovation and creativity
Solves Societal Problems
Provides solutions to challenges facing society
Supports Development
Helps in the development of society
Informs Decision-Making
Serves as basis for government planning
Develops Logical Thinking
Enhances critical thinking skills
Steers Innovation
Drives technological advancement
Challenges to Research
Interpretation and Generalizability
Difficulties in interpreting results and applying findings broadly
Data Quality Issues
Problems with data accuracy, completeness, and reliability
Methodological Challenges
Issues with research design and implementation
Data Challenges
Difficulties in data collection, storage, and analysis
Ethical Considerations
Ensuring research meets ethical standards
Research in AI Environment
Benefits of AI in Research
Increased Productivity
Large amounts of data can be processed quickly, allowing researchers to focus on higher-level tasks
Reduced Errors
AI helps reduce errors and improve accuracy by automating repetitive tasks
Challenges and Limitations of AI
Lack of Future Vision
AI tools are limited by training data and may not generate new insights
Lack of Transparency
Issues with accountability and reproducibility
Ethical Considerations
Concerns about bias, fairness, and intellectual property
Regulatory Challenges
Evolving AI regulations and data privacy concerns
Solutions and Strategies
- Training of AI Literacy: Providing AI education and training to close the knowledge gap and promote productive human-AI collaboration
- Human-AI Collaboration: Designing workflows that take advantage of both AI and human intelligence
- Continuous Monitoring: AI models must be updated frequently to remain accurate and relevant
Ethical Imperatives in Research
Research ethics provides a foundational framework for the responsible conduct of all research activities. It establishes essential guidelines and educates researchers, fostering a high ethical standard throughout the investigative process.
Honesty and Objectivity
Be honest when reporting data, findings, procedures, and publication status. Refrain from fabricating, falsifying, or misrepresenting data. Aim to eradicate bias in all facets of research.
Openness and Respect for Intellectual Property
Share information, findings, tools, resources, and data freely while keeping an open mind to criticism and fresh concepts. Honor copyrights, patents, and other intellectual property.
Mentoring, Collegiality, and Social Responsibility
Educate, mentor, and advise students, promoting their well-being and autonomy. Treat colleagues fairly and with respect. Strive to ensure research contributes positively to society.
Integrity and Carefulness
Retain commitments and agreements, behave honorably, and ensure consistency between thoughts and actions. Work diligently and critically, maintaining thorough records of all research activities.
Confidentiality and Responsible Publication
Safeguard confidential communications such as submitted papers, grant proposals, personnel records, trade secrets, and patient information. Publish research primarily to advance scholarship.
Non-Discrimination and Competence
Avoid discrimination based on sex, race, ethnicity, or other factors unrelated to scientific competence. Continuously enhance professional competence through lifelong learning.
References
- Kothari, C. (2004). Research methodology: Methods and techniques. New Delhi: New Age International
- Pardede, P.(2018). Research components. ELT Module.
- Walden University. (n.d.). 07 Research challenges: And how to overcome them. Walden University. Retrieved July 12, 2025. https://www.waldenu.edu/news-and-events/publications/articles/2010/01-research-challenges
- Lumenalta. (2024). 9 AI problems in 2025: Common challenges and solutions. Retrieved July 14, 2025. https://lumenalta.com/insights/ai-problems-9-common-challenges-and-solutions
- Sultan, M. (2025). Data privacy and security challenges in AI systems. Authorea. DOI: 10.22541/au.174655377.75454191/v1
- Best, J. W., & Kahn, J. V. (2006). Research in education (10th ed.). Pearson Education.
Introduction
Research is an essential and systematic endeavour that involves the collection, organization, analysis, and interpretation of information to tackle pressing societal issues. This investigative journey becomes truly scientific when specific, proven methods and techniques are employed to secure, record, measure, analyse, and interpret data. From the initial identification of a problem to the final report, this continuous cycle of research is pivotal to achieving meaningful results.
The first and most crucial step in the research process is selecting and precisely defining the research problem. The entire research endeavour relies on correctly identifying this problem. If researchers do not diagnose the problem accurately, they cannot provide an appropriate solution.
Definition
The term "research problem" refers to a specific question, issue, or area of inquiry that a researcher wants to investigate or explore through the process of research. It refers to some difficulty which a researcher experiences in the context of either a theoretical or practical situation and wants to obtain a solution for the same.
It represents the central focus or challenge that guides the research endeavour. The research problem is typically formulated based on gaps or deficiencies in existing knowledge, unresolved questions, practical concerns, or emerging issues within a particular field or discipline.
⚖️ Research Problem Feasibility Assessment
FINER Criteria Framework
✅ Feasible
Practical and achievable given available resources
🎯 Interesting
Intriguing to researcher and broader field
💡 Novel
Makes original contribution to knowledge
⚖️ Ethical
No concerns about potential harm
🌍 Relevant
Important to field and society
✅ Feasible
Practical and achievable given available resources
🎯 Interesting
Intriguing to researcher and broader field
💡 Novel
Makes original contribution to knowledge
⚖️ Ethical
No concerns about potential harm
🌍 Relevant
Important to field and society
Characteristics of a Good Research Problem
💎 Clarity & Unambiguity
Research Problems should be clearly and precisely stated without confusion, avoiding vague or general statements
🌍 Specificity
Well-defined scope and boundaries
🎯 Relevance/Significance
Addresses important issues that matter to the field and society
✅ Feasibility
Practical and achievable with available time, resources, and access
💡 Novelty/Originality
Explores new facets and contributes new knowledge or insights rather than replicating existing work
⭐ Importance
Addresses significant issues or gaps
📚 Contextualization
Situated within appropriate framework
📐 Precision
Exact and well-articulated
🎪 Delimitation
Clear boundaries and limitations
⚖️ Ethical Considerations
Meets ethical standards and guidelines
Need for Formulation of A Research Problem
Proper formulation of research problems is essential for several reasons:
Provides Direction
Proper formulation of the problem provides a sense of direction to the researcher.
Specifies Scope
Proper formulation specifies the scope of research.
Indicates Limitations
Proper formulation indicates the limitations of the research.
Clarifies Problem
Proper formulation clarifies the problem.
Establishes Assumptions
Proper formulation establishes the major assumption.
Expresses Context
Proper formulation expresses the context of the problem.
Provides Economy
Proper formulation provides economy in research.
⚖️ Research Questions vs Hypotheses
❓ Research Questions
Purpose: Explore, describe, or investigate phenomena when limited knowledge exists
Format: Interrogative statements seeking understanding
Types:
- Descriptive: "What factors influence academic achievement?"
- Comparative: "What is the performance difference between methods A and B?"
- Relationship: "What is the relationship between self-efficacy and achievement?"
🎯 Hypotheses
Purpose: Make testable predictions about relationships between variables
Format: Declarative statements predicting specific outcomes
Types:
- Simple: One independent, one dependent variable
- Complex: Multiple variables
- Directional: Specifies expected direction
- Non-directional: Predicts relationship exists
🤔 Decision Framework: When to Use Each
Use Research Questions When:
- Exploring new topics with limited research
- Conducting qualitative research
- Taking inductive approach
- Limited theoretical background exists
Use Hypotheses When:
- Testing established theories
- Conducting quantitative research
- Taking deductive approach
- Specific predictions possible
Selection of the Research Problem
When selecting a research problem, consider the following critical factors:
📋 Resource Assessment Checklist
- Human Resources: Required expertise, skills, team capacity
- Financial Resources: Budget for compensation, equipment, personnel
- Time Constraints: Available timeline for all phases
- Technical Resources: Equipment, software, facilities needed
- Access and Permissions: Participant availability, institutional approval
Sources of Research Problems
🏥 Practical Field Experiences
Real-world problems observed in professional practice
📚 Literature Gaps
Systematic review to identify contradictions and unexplored areas
🤔 Theoretical Contradictions
Conflicts between different theoretical perspectives
Components of A Research Problem
Topic
Area or domain under investigation.
Research Question
A well-defined and specific question.
Objective
The aims, goals, and expected outcomes of the research.
Scope and Limitations
Explanation of the boundaries and constraints of the study.
Significance
Importance and contribution of the research.
Hypotheses
Testable predictions or assumptions.
Variables
Key factors to be studied and measured.
Methodology
Approach and methods for investigation.
📝 Problem Statement Formulation
Defining a research problem clearly and accurately is essential for a successful research study and must be approached with care. Follow these critical steps in order:
1Broad Area Selection
Begin by choosing a broad field/area/topic of interest based on expertise and passion or significant scientific and intellectual interests.
2Surveying Available Literature
All available literature concerning the problem at hand must necessarily be surveyed and examined before a definition of the research problem is given.
3Gap Identification
Based on your literature survey, pinpoint specific knowledge gaps or contradictions observed.
4Narrowing Focus
Now try to narrow doen your problem by selecting specific feasible components.
5Statement of the Problem
Start articulating the problem in broad terms, addressing either practical concerns or significant scientific and intellectual interests.
6Understanding the Nature of the Problem
Thoroughly examine the origin and nature of the problem. Engage in discussions with knowledgeable individuals who have expertise in the specific issue or related areas to gain deeper insights.
7Developing Ideas Through Discussions / Stakeholder Input
A researcher must discuss his/her problem with his/her colleagues and others who have enough experience in the same area or in working on similar problems.
8Rephrasing the Research Problem
Finally, the researcher must sit to rephrase the research problem into a working proposition. Through rephrasing, the researcher puts the research problem in as specific terms as possible so that it may become operationally viable.
📋 Problem Statement Template
A well-formulated problem statement should include:
- One concise sentence stating the specific issue
- Clear indication of where and to whom it's relevant
- Connection to broader theoretical or practical significance
Types of Research Problems
These issues revolve around describing or recording a specific occurrence, incident, or circumstances.
These problems are made to look deeply into a specific subject or issue, frequently to develop new theories or ideas.
These issues usually involve testing ideas or hypotheses to understand why a certain phenomenon or event happens.
Making predictions or estimates about potential occurrences or patterns is required for these issues.
These issues entail determining how well a specific intervention, program, or strategy works.
Conclusion
Defining a research problem is not a single step, but rather a journey of refinement. Initially, the problem is stated in general terms, after which ambiguities are resolved. This ongoing process of thinking and rethinking leads to a more specific formulation of the problem, ensuring that it is realistic in terms of available data and resources, as well as analytically meaningful.
Without correctly identifying the research problem, a researcher may struggle to address it effectively. Therefore, the accurate identification and selection of a research problem at the right time play a crucial role in the successful completion of a research study.
References
- Asenahabi, B.M.(2019). Basics of Research Design. International Journal of Contemporary Applied Research, Vol.16, No.5 (ISSN: 2308-1365)
- Kothari, C.R. (2004). Research Methodology: Methods & Techniques (2nd Rev. Ed.). New Age International Publishers
- Madhu, D.M.Hanumanthappa, R, Rosalin Geetha, I. and Kota Karuna Sri (2024). Advances in Agricultural Research Methodology (Vol. 2) (ISBN-978-93-6039-841-5)
- Raja, N.V. Research Methodology and Statistics for Home Science (e-book) https://e-books.inflibnet.ac.in
- https://epgp.inflibnet.ac.in
📐 Research Design Overview
Research design is the blueprint that guides how you will conduct your study. The right design depends on your research questions, objectives, available resources, and practical constraints.
Why Study Different Types of Research?
Understanding different types of research helps researchers:
- Choose the most appropriate methodology for their investigation
- Understand the strengths and limitations of various approaches
- Design more effective and efficient research studies
- Interpret and evaluate research findings critically
⚖️ Research Designs Vs Research Methodology Vs Research Methods
Research design is the overall plan to answer a research question, while research methodology is the justification and rationale for that plan and the chosen methods. Research methods are the specific tools and techniques used to implement the plan, such as surveys, interviews, or experiments, for data collection and analysis.
📐 Research Designs
What it is: The comprehensive framework for conducting a study, a blueprint for how the research will be structured to address the research question effectively.
Purpose: To ensure the data collected is relevant, reliable, and can accurately answer the research problem with minimal error.
Examples: Descriptive Designs, Experimental Designs, Quantitative Designs, Qualitative Designs, Quasi-Experimental Designs, Correlational Designs
⚙️ Research Methodology
What it is: The overarching strategy and the underlying philosophical assumptions that guide the research process. It explains why certain methods and designs were chosen.
Purpose: To provide a logical justification for the selected research approach and to ensure the study is systematic, valid, and reliable.
Examples:Methodologies that include grounded theory or phenomenology.
🧩 Research Methods
What it is: The specific tools and techniques used to gather, analyze, and interpret data to answer the research question.
Purpose: To provide a structured approach to investigating phenomena, enabling data collection and analysis.
Examples:Observation / Participant Observation, Surveys, Interviews, Focus Groups, Experiments, Secondary Data Analysis / Archival Study, Mixed Methods (combination of some of the above)
| Feature | Research Design | Research Methodology | Research Methods |
|---|---|---|---|
| Scope | The overall strategy and framework for the entire project. | The theoretical and philosophical underpinning of the chosen approach. | The specific, practical tools and techniques for data collection and analysis. |
| Focus | On the end product: What kind of study is being planned and what results are aimed for? | On the entire research process and the logic behind it. | On the individual tasks and techniques of conducting the study. |
| Question | Asks, "What evidence is needed to answer the research question?" | Asks, "Why are certain methods being used?" | Asks, "What procedures or tools will be used to collect data?" |
| Relationship | The structure within which the research is conducted. | Guides the choice and application of research methods. | A subset of the research methodology. |
| Analogy | Think of a research design as an architect's blueprint for a house, which outlines the structure, scope, and plan before construction begins. | The methodology explains the rationale behind the blueprint, detailing the principles and processes that will ensure the house is built correctly. | The research methods are the hammers, nails, and bricks used to construct the house according to the blueprint and plan. |
Types of Research - Overview
Research can be classified based on:
- General Classification
- The Application
- The Purpose or Objectives
- Methods
These issues revolve around describing or recording a specific occurrence, incident, or circumstances.
These problems are made to look deeply into a specific subject or issue, frequently to develop new theories or ideas.
These issues usually involve testing ideas or hypotheses to understand why a certain phenomenon or event happens.
Making predictions or estimates about potential occurrences or patterns is required for these issues.
These issues entail determining how well a specific intervention, program, or strategy works.
Basic (Fundamental/Pure) and Applied Research
Pure or Fundamental or Basic Research
Driven by scientist's curiosity or interest in a scientific question.
The research which is done for knowledge enhancement, the research which does not have immediate commercial potential. The research which is done for human welfare, animal welfare and plant kingdom welfare. It is called basic, pure, fundamental research.
The main motivation is to expand man's knowledge, not to create or invent something.
According to Travers: "Basic Research is designed to add to an organized body of scientific knowledge and does not necessarily produce results of immediate practical value."
Characteristics:
- Seeks generalization
- Aims at basic processes
- Attempts to explain why things happen
- Tries to get all the facts
Examples:
- How did the universe begin?
- What are protons, neutrons and electrons composed of?
Applied Research
Seeks to solve practical problems of the modern world employing well known and accepted theories and principles or scientific methods, rather than to acquire knowledge for knowledge's sake.
The goal of applied research is to improve the human condition. It focuses on analysis and solving social and real life problems.
Most of the experimental research, case studies and interdisciplinary research are essentially applied research. The outcome of applied research has immediate application.
Characteristics:
- Studies individual or specific cases without the objective to generalize
- Aims at any variable which makes the desired difference
- Tries to say how things can be changed
- Tries to correct the facts which are problematic
- Reports in technical language of the discipline
Examples:
- How to improve agricultural crop production?
- How to treat or cure a specific disease?
- How to improve energy efficiency at homes or offices?
- How can communication among workers in large companies be improved?
Problem-Oriented Research
It is conducted to understand the exact nature of a problem to find out relevant solutions. The term "problem" refers to multiple choices or issues when analyzing a situation.
Research is done by industry apex body for sorting out problems faced by all the companies.
Example: Revenue of a car company has decreased by 12% in the last year. The following could be the probable causes: no optimum production, poor quality of a product, no advertising, or economic conditions.
Problem-Solving Research
This type of research is conducted by companies to understand and resolve their own problems.
Marketing research and market research are the forms of Problem-Solving Research which uses applied research to find solutions to the existing problems.
Example: Videocon international conducts research to study customer satisfaction level, it will be problem-solving research.
Action Research
Action research is a philosophy and methodology of research generally applied in the social sciences (including psychology, sociology, social work, medicine, nursing, education).
It seeks transformative change through the simultaneous process of taking action and doing research, which are linked together by critical reflection.
It is a disciplined process of inquiry conducted by and for those taking the action. The primary reason for engaging in action research is to assist the "actor" in improving and/or refining his or her actions.
Action research is very popular in the field of education because there is always room for improvement when it comes to teaching and educating others.
Descriptive and Analytical Research
Descriptive Research
It includes surveys and fact-finding enquiries of different kinds. It is directed toward studying "what" and how many of this "what". Thus, it is directed toward answering questions such as, "What is this?".
It mainly deals with the "description of the state of affairs as it is at present". It provides an accurate portrayal of characteristics of a particular individual, situation or group.
The main characteristic of this method is that the researcher has no control over the variables; he can only report what has happened or what is happening.
Mostly involves Primary data.
Examples:
- Finding the most frequent diseases that affects the children of a town (The reader will be aware and can apply preventive measures)
- Frequency of shopping
- Preferences of people
Analytical Research
In analytical research, the researcher has to use facts or information already available, and analyze these to make a critical evaluation of the material. Simply, carrying out analysis on a phenomena.
Mostly involves secondary data.
The analytical research usually concerns itself with cause-effect relationships.
The distinction between descriptive and analytical research is based on the question it asks:
Descriptive research attempts to determine, describe, or identify what is, while analytical research attempts to establish why it is that way or how it came to be.
Examples:
- What is the State wise distribution of students in ISI? - Descriptive Research
- Why ISI is Bengali dominant? - Analytical Research
Conceptual Research
Conceptual research is that related to some abstract idea(s) or theory. It is generally used by philosophers and thinkers to develop new concepts or to reinterpret existing ones.
It focuses on the concept or theory that explains or describes the phenomenon, not the practical experiment.
Examples:
- How can we describe the motions of the planets?
- What are the building blocks of matter?
Empirical Research
It is data-based research, coming up with conclusions which are capable of being verified by observation or experiment.
Can also be called Experimental Research, where it is necessary to get all facts and their sources, and actively do certain things to stimulate the production of desired information.
In such a research, we have to set an experimental design and must provide a working hypothesis or guess the probable results. Then we have to work to get enough facts (data) to prove or disprove the hypothesis.
Such research is thus characterised by the experimenter's control over the variables under study and his deliberate manipulation of one of them to study its effects.
Qualitative and Quantitative Research
Qualitative Research
A process of inquiry. This is a non-statistical method.
It is concerned with qualitative phenomenon, i.e., phenomena relating to or involving quality or kind. It is dealing with phenomena that are difficult or impossible to quantify mathematically; such as beliefs, meanings, emotions, symbols, attributes, etc.
This research aims to gather an in-depth understanding of human behaviour and reasons that governs such behaviour.
Characteristics:
- Non-numerical, descriptive, applies reasoning and uses words
- Its aim is to get the meaning, feeling and describe the situation
- Qualitative data cannot be graphed
- It is exploratory
- It investigates the why and how of decision making
Quantitative Research
Quantitative research is based on the measurement of quantity or amount. It is applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in terms of quantity.
Characteristics:
- Numerical, non-descriptive, applies statistics or mathematics and uses numbers
- It is an iterative process whereby evidence is evaluated
- The results are often presented in tables and graphs
- It is conclusive
- It investigates the what, where and when of decision making
🔬 Selection Framework
📊 Quantitative Methods
Purpose: Test hypotheses, measure relationships numerically
Strengths:
- Objectivity and generalizability
- Statistical significance testing
- Large sample capabilities
- Replicability
Limitations:
- Limited depth of understanding
- May miss nuanced experiences
- Requires existing theory
💬 Qualitative Methods
Purpose: Explore and understand experiences, generate theories
Strengths:
- Deep understanding
- Contextual insight
- Flexibility to adapt
- Captures participant voice
Limitations:
- Limited generalizability
- Researcher subjectivity
- Time-intensive analysis
🔗 Mixed Methods
Purpose: Comprehensive understanding combining both approaches
Advantages:
- Triangulation of findings
- Comprehensive insights
- Methodological balance
- Explains quantitative with qualitative depth
Challenges:
- Resource-intensive
- Requires expertise in both approaches
- Complex analysis and integration
Other Types of Research
Primary and Secondary Research
Primary Research
Conducted by ourselves from the beginning. Primary research is a methodology used by researchers to collect data directly, rather than depending on data collected from previously done research.
Secondary Research
Secondary research is a methodology used by researchers, where they use data collected by others, previously, for their study. It involves the summary, collation and/or synthesis of existing research.
Exploratory Research
It is conducted to explore a group of questions to handle new problem areas which haven't been explored before. Investigation into a problem or situation which provides insights to the problem.
The research is meant to provide details where a small amount of information exists. It may use a variety of methods such as trial studies, interviews, group discussions, experiments, or other tactics for the purpose of gaining information.
Exploratory research is research conducted for a problem that has not been clearly defined. It is to identify key issues and key variables.
Exploratory research often relies on secondary research such as reviewing available literature and/or data, or qualitative approaches such as informal discussions with consumers, employees, management or competitors, and more formal approaches through in-depth interviews, focus groups, projective methods, case studies or pilot studies.
Explanatory Research
Explanatory research is defined as an attempt to connect ideas to understand cause and effect, meaning researchers want to explain what is going on.
Explanatory research explains how the parts of a phenomenon are related to each other. We began exploring something new with exploratory research. Then, we conducted descriptive research to increase our knowledge of it. Lastly, we need to explain it.
- Explain Why a phenomenon is going on
- Can be used for hypothesis testing
- Allow for inferences to be drawn about associations and causality
- It is conducted to understand the impact of certain changes in existing standard procedures
Correlational Research
A correlation is simply defined as a relationship between two variables. The whole purpose of using correlations in research is to figure out which variables are connected.
It is establishing a relationship between two variables. It is looking for variables that seem to interact with each other so that when we see one variable changing, we will have a fair idea about how the other variable will change.
Direction of a Correlation:
- Positive correlation: Both variables change in the same direction (e.g., As height increases, weight also increases)
- Negative correlation: The variables change in opposite directions (e.g., As coffee consumption increases, tiredness decreases)
- Zero correlation: There is no relationship between the variables (e.g., Coffee consumption is not correlated with height)
Causal-Comparative Research
Causal-comparative research is an attempt to identify a causative relationship between an independent variable and a dependent variable.
The relationship between the independent variable and dependent variable is usually a suggested relationship (not proven) because you (the researcher) do not have complete control over the independent variable.
In this type of research investigators attempt to determine the cause or consequences of differences that already exist between or among groups of individuals.
The basic similarity between causal-comparative and correlational studies is that both seek to explore relationships among variables. When relationships are identified through causal-comparative research, they often are studied at a later time by means of experimental research.
Historical Research
Historical research is "the systematic collection and objective evaluation of data related to past occurrences in order to test hypotheses concerning causes, effects, or trends of those events which may help to explain present events and anticipate future events" (Gay, 1981, p. 432).
Purposes of Historical Research:
- To reconstruct the past
- To discover unknown events
- To understand significance of events
- To discover the context of an organisation/movement/the situation
- To find answers to questions about the past
- To study cause-and-effect relationship
- To study relationship between the past and the present
- To record and evaluate the accomplishments of individuals, institutions and organisations
- To provide understanding of the immediate phenomenon of concern
Types of Historical Research (Hillway, 1964):
- Biographical research
- Histories of institutions and organisations
- The investigation of sources and influences
- Editing and translating historical documents
- Studying the history of ideas
- Compiling bibliographies
Experimental Research
See Empirical Research section under Descriptive and Analytical Research for details on experimental research methodology.
Survey Research
Survey research is included under Descriptive Research - it includes surveys and fact-finding enquiries of different kinds to collect data from populations.
Ex-Post Facto Research
Ex post facto study or after-the-fact research is a category of research design in which the investigation starts after the fact has occurred without interference from the researcher.
The main characteristic of this method is that the researcher has no control over the variables; he can only report what has happened or what is happening.
The term ex-post facto according to Landman (1988: 62) is used to refer to an experiment in which a researcher, instead of finding a treatment, examines the effect of a naturally occurring treatment after it has occurred. In other words it is a study that attempts to discover the pre-existing causal conditions between groups.
Example: If a child is delinquent (that is, one who indulges in criminal activities), then in order to find the basic reason behind such delinquency, the researcher would try to find out the various events that have occurred and the many possibilities that could have contributed to the concerned delinquent behaviour. The expected possibilities may be lack of discipline at school/family history/peer effect/neighbourhood or socialisation.
Ethnographic Research
It refers to the investigation of a culture through an in-depth study of the members of the culture.
It involves the systematic collection, description, and analysis of data for development of theories of cultural behaviours.
Case Study
A case study is a research method involving an up-close, in-depth, and detailed examination of a particular case.
For example, a case study in medicine may examine a specific patient a doctor treated, and a case study in business might study a particular business's strategy.
Generally, a case can be nearly any unit of analysis, including individuals, organizations, events, or actions. It is commonly used in social sciences and life sciences.
Case studies are based on an in-depth investigation of a single individual, group or event to explore the causes of underlying principles.
A case study research can be single or multiple case studies, includes quantitative evidence, relies on multiple sources of evidence and benefits from the prior development of theoretical propositions.
Conclusion
Defining a research problem is not a single step, but rather a journey of refinement. Initially, the problem is stated in general terms, after which ambiguities are resolved. This ongoing process of thinking and rethinking leads to a more specific formulation of the problem, ensuring that it is realistic in terms of available data and resources, as well as analytically meaningful.
Without correctly identifying the research problem, a researcher may struggle to address it effectively. Therefore, the accurate identification and selection of a research problem at the right time play a crucial role in the successful completion of a research study.
Understanding the various types of research methodologies allows researchers to select the most appropriate approach for their specific investigation, whether it be basic or applied, qualitative or quantitative, descriptive or analytical. Each type of research serves a unique purpose and contributes to the advancement of knowledge in its own way.
References
- Asenahabi, B.M. (2019). Basics of Research Design. International Journal of Contemporary Applied Research, Vol.16, No.5 (ISSN: 2308-1365)
- Gay, L.R. (1981). Educational Research: Competencies for Analysis and Application
- Hillway, T. (1964). Introduction to Research
- Kothari, C.R. (2004). Research Methodology: Methods & Techniques (2nd Rev. Ed.). New Age International Publishers
- Landman, J. (1988). Regret and Elation Following Action and Inaction
- Madhu, D.M., Hanumanthappa, R., Rosalin Geetha, I. and Kota Karuna Sri (2024). Advances in Agricultural Research Methodology (Vol. 2) (ISBN-978-93-6039-841-5)
- Raja, N.V. Research Methodology and Statistics for Home Science (e-book) https://e-books.inflibnet.ac.in
- Travers, R.M.W. An Introduction to Educational Research
- https://epgp.inflibnet.ac.in
🧪 Experimental Designs
Manipulate variables to establish cause-effect relationships
⚖️ Quasi-Experimental
Test causality without random assignment
📊 Non-Experimental
Observe and describe without manipulation
💭 Qualitative Designs
Understand experiences and meanings
🔗 Mixed Methods
Combine quantitative and qualitative approaches
Introduction
- Knowledge is created by humans.
- Humans have long observed, experienced, experimented, reasoned, expressed, and recorded information.
- Surviving records and experiences form the Universe of Knowledge (UoK).
- These human activities began in prehistoric times and continue without interruption.
- The Universe of Knowledge will keep expanding indefinitely as long as humans exist.
Objectives
- Understand the structure and methodology of studying and understanding a subject
- Explore various components and dimensions in subject or topic analysis
- Learn techniques to organize and present subject knowledge
Proforma for Study of Subjects
Systematic method to gather and record subject-related information
Helps build a structured handbook
Universe of Knowledge
Important Concepts
Segment
A part of the universe of knowledge containing a subject, sometimes acting as a component of a subject system.
Subject
Composed of one or more segments of the universe of knowledge.
Subject System
A subject with components such as object, action, space, and time.
Example: History → India → British period.
Universe of Knowledge
The entirety of all knowledge that has survived, is currently generated, and will be generated in the future.
Characteristics of the Universe of Knowledge
- Universe of Knowledge (UoK) is not continuous like time or a line
- UoK is infinite, multidimensional, dynamic, and expands in all directions
- Expansion depends on time and space being infinite; if either is zero or finite, expansion stops
- UoK consists of scattered segments separated by space
- Action is essential for expansion; expansion without action is incomprehensible
- UoK is highly flexible, always allowing room for further expansion
- Speed and form (theoretical or practical) of expansion vary in all directions
- Expansion causes some segments to overload, reach critical mass, then split into smaller segments that keep ties to the parent segment
- Over time, parts of two or more segments can merge to form a new segment (e.g., biochemistry), while parent segments retain their parts
- Several segments can cluster together, each maintaining its own identity (e.g., oceanography, physical sciences)
Spiral of Scientific Method
Purpose
Dr. S. R. Ranganathan added the "Spiral of Scientific Method" chapter in the 1957 edition of his five laws of library science to prove librarianship is a science.
Definition
The "Spiral of Scientific Method", mainly in the field of library science, is a model used to describe the research process and how it evolves over time.
It is a cyclical process that involves several stages, including observation, question formulation, hypothesis testing, data collection and analysis, and conclusion drawing.
Concept
The spiral represents the scientific method as a process that moves clockwise in a circle but progresses into new areas.
It offers an overview and visual depiction of how science advances continuously yet revisits concepts at deeper levels.
Characteristics of the Spiral
Identify Research Problem
Define the question or issue to investigate
Literature Review
Examine existing studies to find knowledge gaps
Formulate Hypotheses
Develop testable predictions
Collect Data
Use surveys, interviews, observations
Analyze Data
Apply statistical methods to test hypotheses
Interpret Results
Draw conclusions and make recommendations
Disseminate Findings
Share results via publications
Reflect and Refine
Generate new questions and continue research
Structure of the Spiral
The spiral has been divided into four regions called quadrants by two straight axes intersecting each other at right angle at the centre of the spiral.
There are four cardinal points: Nadir, Ascendant, Zenith, and Descendant.
In all there are four geometrical quadrants corresponding to four major and distinct phases through which a research enquiry passes to find a solution to a formulated problem or on to its path to discover new and verified knowledge.
The Structure and Phases of the Spiral
Ranganathan's Spiral consists of four quadrants that represent the key stages of scientific research. These quadrants are not isolated phases but interconnected stages that continuously interact with one another.
The empirical phase marks the initial step in any research process. This stage involves the collection of raw data through direct observation or experimentation. Empirical research focuses on evidence that is tangible and observable, laying the foundation for subsequent stages of the spiral.
Focus: "What is" — seeking to understand the current state of affairs through first-hand observations and measurable data.
Example: Analyzing how patrons interact with a library's online catalog, or observing the frequency of resource usage in a physical library space.
Once enough data has been gathered, the next phase in the spiral is the hypothesis quadrant. In this stage, researchers move from observation to interpretation. Hypothesis formulation involves generating possible explanations for the empirical findings.
Key Point: Hypotheses must be both testable and falsifiable, meaning they can be proven right or wrong based on future observations.
Example: After observing library visitors, a librarian might hypothesize that quieter zones attract more patrons than noisier study areas.
In this phase, researchers begin to move into testing the hypotheses developed in the previous quadrant. Deductive reasoning involves making predictions based on the hypothesis and testing these predictions through experiments or further observations.
Process: The researcher applies logical reasoning to their hypothesis to deduce what outcomes would be expected if the hypothesis is correct.
Example: Predicting that installing more soundproofing in noisy areas will lead to increased visits to those areas, then designing an experiment to test this prediction.
The verification quadrant is the final phase in Ranganathan's Spiral, where the researcher analyzes the outcomes of the deductive testing. In this phase, the researcher compares the actual results to the predicted outcomes, verifying whether the hypothesis holds true.
Note: Verification doesn't necessarily mean finality — if the results are inconclusive or contradictory, researchers can cycle back through the quadrants. This is the beauty of Ranganathan's Spiral: the scientific method is not linear but circular, allowing researchers to keep refining their ideas and approaches until they reach more conclusive results.
Modes of Formation of Subjects
When ideas are organized into a coherent framework, they form a distinct subject or domain. The methods used to structure these subjects create a system of relationships that guide how ideas connect and evolve. This systematic approach shapes the subject's overall structure, leaving a lasting impact on how concepts are understood and applied.
Ranganathan (1950s) identified four main modes to form subjects in the knowledge universe:
Loose Assemblage refers to the combination of two or more subjects or facets to form a complex subject. It involves examining their mutual relations through various types such as comparison, influence, or tool usage.
Forms complex subjects by combining multiple simple or compound subjects or isolates:
- Assemblage 1: Relates subjects (e.g., "Physics compared with Chemistry")
- Assemblage 2: Relates isolates from the same schedule (e.g., "Comparison of Hinduism and Buddhism")
- Assemblage 3: Relates isolates within an array (e.g., "UDC compared to DDC")
Lamination involves overlaying facets or elements to form a subject. It can create compound subjects by combining different facets with a basic subject.
Forms subjects by overlaying facets:
- Lamination 1: Combines one or more isolate facets with a basic subject (Example: "Botany Morphology")
- Lamination 2: Combines species of basic subjects or isolates (Example: "Urban Youths")
Dissection divides a broad subject into smaller, coordinate parts for better organization and understanding. It ensures logical segmentation without altering the essence of components.
Example: "Life Sciences" split into "Botany" and "Zoology"; "India" divided into "States"
Denudation narrows a subject's scope by reducing its breadth (extension) while increasing its depth (intension).
Example: World → Asia → India → Tamil Nadu → Madurai
Additional Formation Modes
Fission is the process of dividing a basic subject or an isolate into smaller, coordinate subfields.
- Fission of Basic Subject: "Biology" split into "Botany" and "Zoology"
- Fission of Isolate Ideas: "Asia → China, India, Iran, etc."
Fusion is the process where two or more primary basic subjects combine to form a new subject, losing their individual identities in the process.
Example: Biology + Chemistry = Biochemistry
Distillation is the process of creating a pure discipline from a compound subject. It involves extracting a primary basic subject from its interaction with other subjects.
Example: "Microbiology" and "Forestry" distilled from Biology
Agglomeration refers to the collection of multiple entities into a large mass without cohesion among the components.
Example: "Natural Sciences" or "History and Economics"
Cluster refers to the grouping of several specialized studies or entities on a particular phenomenon or topic into a broader field of study. Also known as a subject bundle.
Example: "Social Science" or "Natural Science"
Terminological Development
Track the evolution of terminology used for the subject
Example: Library Science evolved from Library Economy to Librarianship
Scope of the Subject
Divisions & Subdivisions
How the subject is organized
Applications
Applications in other areas
Tool-Subjects
Subjects that support the subject's growth
Development of the Subject
- Landmarks: Key contributors and chronological growth
- Research Trends: Current areas of focus
- Trends in Education: Across UG, PG, and Research levels
Sources of Information
Documentary
Primary and Secondary sources
Institutional
International, National, Local
Human Experts
Renowned specialists
Information Transfer
- Study of user behavior and information-seeking patterns
- Formulate typical queries based on user needs
References
- Battacharya, G. (1972). Study of Subject. https://www.caluniv.ac.in/academic/LibSc/Study/Study-Subject.pdf
- https://lis.academy/research-methodology/exploring-ranganathans-spiral-scientific-method/
- https://www.researchgate.net/publication/356655131_Ranganathan's_Spiral_An_Aerial_View_of_Scientific_Method
- https://ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in/lisp2/chapter/subjects-and-disciplines-modes-of-formation-of-subjects/
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📚 Basic Information
📚 Essential Research Resources
🔗 Research Databases
PubMed: Medical literature
Google Scholar: Academic search
PsycINFO: Psychology research
ERIC: Education resources
🛠️ Research Tools
G*Power: Sample size calculation
SPSS/R: Statistical analysis
NVivo/Atlas.ti: Qualitative analysis
Zotero: Reference management
📊 Analysis Software
Quantitative: SPSS, R, Stata, SAS
Qualitative: NVivo, Atlas.ti, Dedoose
Mixed Methods: MaxQDA, NVivo
Free Options: R, JASP, PSPP
📋 Guidelines & Standards
PRISMA: Systematic reviews
CONSORT: Clinical trials
STROBE: Observational studies
COREQ: Qualitative research
💡 Best Practices & Tips
✅ Research Excellence Checklist
- Begin with clear, focused research questions
- Select methods based on questions, not convenience
- Consider ethical implications from project inception
- Plan for adequate sample size and statistical power
- Document all procedures for reproducibility
- Maintain rigorous quality standards throughout
- Report findings transparently with limitations
- Consider broader impact and dissemination strategies
⚠️ Common Pitfalls to Avoid
- Methodology Mismatch: Using methods that don't answer your research questions
- Inadequate Sample Size: Too small for meaningful statistical analysis
- Bias Introduction: Uncontrolled confounding variables
- Ethical Oversights: Insufficient protection of participants
- Poor Documentation: Inability to replicate procedures